Structuring the Reflection Process

Contextualizing Reflection

Based on a review of service-learning research, Rama et al.(2000) developed a framework for designing service-learning. This framework is adapted from the assessment framework of Gainen and Locatelli (1995) and suggests that actual student achievement from service-learning activities is a result of three interacting factors: student characteristics, intended learning outcomes, and the educational environment.

The figure below is based on the design framework of Rama et al. (2000) and focuses specifically on the design of reflection. As shown in the figure, faculty must consider the context of the reflection activities (student characteristics, course characteristics, and service characteristics) in establishing learning outcomes and in structuring the reflection process. As an example, frequent reflection and timely feedback can enhance the effectiveness of reflection. However, a large class size may limit the ability of the instructor to organize frequent reflection and to provide frequent feedback.


FIGURE 1
Designing Reflection




Student Characteristics

A variety of student characteristics, including student preparation and goals, student motivation, learning styles, and intellectual development, influence student learning. These characteristics as well as the implications of these characteristics for the design of reflection are discussed below.

Planning Questions

What is the level of student preparation ? Do students have prior service experience?

Faculty must consider student readiness for service-learning projects, especially when designing appropriate preparatory exercises. For example, assignments may be required to help students acquire prerequisite knowledge, prepare students for solving complex real-world problems, and help students understand the community organization and people served by the organization.

What are students' motivation/goals?

Extrinsic motivators (grades) and intrinsic motivation to learn must be considered in designing reflection activities. Unless reflection activities are assigned a reasonable weight in grading, students may not spend adequate time and effort. Faculty should also consider intrinsic motivation. Research suggests that students are motivated by factors such as relevance, appropriate level of difficulty, active involvement of students, interaction between students and faculty. Thus faculty can motivate students by designing reflection activities that help students see the relevance of the service to their coursework, by ensuring that reflection activities are at an appropriate level of difficulty and by fostering communication between students, faculty and community partners.

What are the constraints on student participation in the service-learning project and reflection activities?

Faculty must consider constraints on student time and schedules. For example, if most students work for a significant amount of time every week, time available for working with teams outside of class may be limited. Faculty may need to provide some class time for group planning and reflection activities.

What do we know about students' learning styles?

Students' learning styles must be considered in designing appropriate reflection. "Learning style" refers to how students prefer to approach a learning task. Research suggests that students learn best when their learning style is congruent with the teaching style. Research has examined various aspects of learning styles including (1) personality types, (2) models of how people process information, (3) social interaction models, and (4) instructional preference models. One of the most widely used analyses of personality types is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). It examines how the individual perceives the world and makes decisions by using four scales (1) extraversion/introversion, (2) sensing/intuition, (3) thinking/feeling, and (4) judging/perception. Schroeder(1993) combines some MBTI scales and described four patterns of learning: (1) ES extraversion/sensing (concrete active), (2) IS- Introversion/sensing (concrete reflective), (3) EN Extraversion/ intuitive (abstract active), and (4) IN Introversion/intuitive (abstract reflective). Studies show that 50% of high school seniors exhibit the ES pattern. These students seek direct concrete experience and high structure. By designing reflection appropriately, instructors can provide adequate structure in service-learning projects for these students Kolb's experiential learning model is an example of an information processing model. David Kolb postulated that learning occurs in a cycle in which students engage in concrete experience, observe and reflect on that experience, assimilate reflections in a theory, and then deduce implications for future action from that theory. Kolb's model identifies four types of learners. For example, accomodators prefer to take in knowledge through concrete experience and process it through active experimentation. Another model, the 4MAT system relies on several theoretical foundations: the experiential learning model of Kolb, the concept of hemisphericity - the notion that varying skills and behaviors are more likely to be dominated by different areas of the brain or to be associated with neural activity in different areas of the brain - and in part the theory of Jung, which is most typically applied in education via the Meyers-Briggs Type Inventory. The third level focuses on how students behave in a classroom. For example, Fuhrman and Jacobs model categorizes learners as dependent, collaborative or independent. A student may be dependent when starting a new subject and become collaborative or independent as they acquire knowledge and become more confident. Interaction between students and faculty during reflection must consider the style of interaction appropriate for students in a class. More structure may be required for students in a freshman/sophomore classes than for students in a capstone course. The fourth level refers to instructional preferences. One example is the Canfield Learning style Inventory that includes four dimensions: (1) conditions of learning ( structure, affiliation with peers and instructor, independence etc.), content of learning (numerical, qualitative etc.), (3) mode of learning (reading, direct experience), and (4) expectations of results. Research suggests that students are most likely to succeed in courses that are compatible with their instructional preferences. By using tools such as the Canfield learning style inventory, faculty may be better able to understand the instructional preferences of their students and their readiness for the methods being used in the class. Such information can be useful in designing appropriate reflection activities.

What do we know about students' intellectual development?

Cognitive development literature suggests that many students may not be ready to handle adequately the complexity of real-world service-learning problems. Effective service-learning must balance the need to challenge students against the need to provide adequate support. Cognitive development literature can help faculty understand their students current efforts at problem-solving as well as design service-learning projects in a way challenges students while providing adequate support. One model of cognitive development that is particularly well suited to service-learning can be used for designing service-learning environments is the reflective judgment model of adult cognitive development (King and Kitchener 1994). Briefly, the reflective judgment model describes a developmental progression of seven levels of reasoning strategies that individuals can apply to problems involving significant uncertainties, such as those likely to be found in service-learning activities, and explains the epistemological assumptions, or sets of assumptions, about knowledge that underlie those strategies. Levels 3-6 are briefly discussed below. Levels 1 and 2 are not described since college students rarely operate at these levels. Level 7 is not discussed because students at this level should be able to perform service-learning and reflection tasks competently. Students at reflective judgment level 3 believe that knowledge is certain and that experts can provide all the answers . At level 4 knowledge is recognized as uncertain. Beliefs are justified by giving reasons and providing evidence. However, students operating at level four of the reflective judgment model have difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own, and they tend to look only for evidence that supports their own prior beliefs. Students operating at level 5 can understand multiple viewpoints and qualitatively interpret evidence. These students' greatest difficulty is in reaching and defending a single solution as most reasonable when faced with open-ended problems. Students operating at level 6 can analyze problems complexly and they can also reach and adequately defend reasonable solutions to open-ended problems. Their difficulty lies in recognizing the ongoing nature of open-ended problems. These students might not recognize the need to revisit problems as new information is obtained or as changes occur. Faculty must understand students' current intellectual development in order to balance challenge and support in reflection, and to design appropriate reflection activities.

Course and Service Characteristics

The nature of reflection activities must be appropriate to the service activities, the course goals and related requirements. The table below provides examples of planning questions that faculty could consider in designing reflection. Many of the planning questions involve the relationship of the service activities to other coursework (e.g. weight assigned to service-learning in overall course grade, extent of course knowledge required for service). Hence, we consider course and service characteristics jointly.

Planning Questions	Implications for Reflection
What type of course is the service-learning project being incorporated in? (freshman, sophomore, junior or senior level course; required, elective or capstone course)	The nature of reflection activities must be appropriate for the course. For example, (1) If students are involved in their first service experience through a freshman/sophomore level course, reflection activities to orient students for working in community based settings may be important. (2) It may be more feasible to incorporate extensive reflection if the service project is a major component of a course (e.g. a capstone course)
What course knowledge is required for completing project tasks?	One of the key objectives of reflection is to connect service activities with coursework. If a significant amount of course material is required for the service project, several preparatory exercises may be required to help students practice application of course concepts to unstructured problems.
What skills are required for completing project tasks (information-gathering, oral presentation, teamwork)?	Reflective exercises may be required to help students acquire necessary skills for carrying out project activities. For example, assignments may be required to help guide students in tasks such as interview planning and question design.
Are projects completed in teams?	If projects are completed in teams, small group discussions can be effective in discussing issues specific to a team's activities. Discussion can help students see the service experience, problems etc. from multiple perspectives. Students may feel more comfortable in small group settings.
Do different teams work on similar tasks for different organizations? Do different teams work on varying tasks for the same organization?	If teams work on similar activities (tutoring, designing web pages) then faculty can organize large group discussions focusing on solving these specific types of problems. Large group discussions of project activities may be more difficult if different teams are engaged in diverse service activities. If service activities are different but all the teams are working for the same community organization, large group discussions can be organized to deal with larger issues related to community needs and the organization. For example, faculty can arrange a presentation by community agancy staff to orient students to the organization.
What is the weight assigned to the service-learning project in grading?	Reflection activities have to be appropriate given the weight of the service project in the overall course grade. If the proportion of the course grade attached to the service project is small, it may not be feasible to assign extensive reflection activities. Similarly, different reflection approaches may have to be used if the project is optional or for extra credit. For example, large group discussion of the service-learning project may be difficult if service-learning is an extra credit option.
To what extent are community agency staff commited to the project?	If the community organization is committed to the project, several reflection activities may occur in community settings. Students may be involved in orientation sessions, ongoing discussions, presentations etc.
To what extent are community agency personnel able to participate in activities designed to support educational goals of students?	Some community agency staff may be willing to assume active roles as partners in education. For example, they may be willing to give presentations on application of course related material in nonprofit settings.

Gainen, J. and P. Locatelli. 1995. Assessment for the New Curriculum: A Guide for Professional Accounting Programs. Accounting Education Series 11. Sarasota, FL: Accounting Education Change Commission and American Accounting Association.

Rama D. V., S. Ravencroft, S. K. Wolcott, and E. Zlotkowski. 2000. Service-Learning Outcomes: Guidelines for Educators and Researchers. Issues in Accounting Education. 15(4): 656-689.